Why did I lose the mark?

The answer that scoresFlexion is movement that decreases the angle at a joint. At the elbow, the biceps brachii contracts to produce flexion.

The answer that scoresBoth are ball and socket joints, but the shoulder has a shallow socket in the scapula and loose ligaments, so it has the greatest range of movement and is the least stable. The hip has a deep socket in the pelvis and strong ligaments, so it is much more stable but moves through a smaller range.

The answer that scoresThe main agonist for hip flexion is iliopsoas. The hamstring group flexes the knee, not the hip.

The answer that scoresThe ankle is a hinge joint between the tibia, fibula and talus. Dorsiflexion is produced by tibialis anterior and plantar flexion by gastrocnemius.

The answer that scoresThe antagonist is the muscle on the opposite side of the joint to the agonist. It relaxes and lengthens to allow the agonist to shorten and produce the movement, and it controls the return of the joint.

The answer that scoresDuring elbow extension the triceps brachii is the agonist, contracting to extend the elbow, and the biceps brachii is the antagonist, relaxing and lengthening to allow the extension.

The answer that scoresA fixator contracts to stabilise the origin of the agonist, holding a bone or joint still so that unwanted movement elsewhere does not waste the agonist's force.

The answer that scoresA muscle's role depends on the movement. The biceps brachii is the agonist during elbow flexion in a pull action but becomes the antagonist during the return as the elbow extends.

The answer that scoresIn an eccentric contraction the muscle is contracting and producing force while it lengthens under the load, so it controls a movement at the joint rather than producing it.

The answer that scoresIn an isometric contraction the muscle produces force but does not change length, so there is no movement at the joint and the joint angle stays the same — for example holding the scrum position in Rugby union.

The answer that scoresThe biceps brachii produces elbow flexion concentrically. When it contracts eccentrically it lengthens under tension and controls the opposite movement, elbow extension, for example when lowering a weight under control.

The answer that scoresEccentric contractions can produce the greatest force of the three types, isometric contractions more than concentric, and concentric contractions the least. This is why a load is lowered eccentrically and a landing is absorbed eccentrically.

The answer that scoresFG fibres have few mitochondria and a low myoglobin content, so they rely on anaerobic energy from their large phosphocreatine and glycogen stores to produce the greatest force at the fastest speed.

The answer that scoresA marathon runner depends mainly on slow oxidative fibres: many mitochondria, high myoglobin and dense capillaries let them use oxygen aerobically for a long duration, and their high fatigue resistance keeps force output steady for the whole race.

The answer that scoresEvery muscle contains a mixture of SO, FOG and FG fibres. What differs is the proportion of each, which is largely genetic and is influenced by training, and which of them is recruited at any moment depends on how much force the movement needs.

The answer that scoresFOG fibres are a distinct type: they contract fast and produce high force, hold high glycogen stores for anaerobic energy and a moderate number of mitochondria and capillaries for aerobic energy, giving them moderate fatigue resistance.

The answer that scoresAt the knee, a hinge joint formed by the femur and tibia, the movement is extension. The rectus femoris contracts concentrically as the agonist and the biceps femoris relaxes as the antagonist, so the leg extends and drives the player upwards.

The answer that scoresOn landing the knee flexes under body weight and the rectus femoris, which produces knee extension concentrically, now contracts eccentrically to control and slow that flexion, absorbing the landing forces and protecting the knee joint.

The answer that scoresThe gluteus maximus is the agonist for hip extension at the ball and socket joint between the femur and pelvis, contracting concentrically. The abdominals act as fixators, stabilising the pelvis and trunk so the hip extensors have a fixed base to pull against.

The answer that scoresThe shoulder is a ball and socket joint formed by the humerus and scapula. Raising the arm towards the basket is flexion, produced concentrically by the anterior deltoid as the agonist, with the posterior deltoid as the antagonist.

The answer that scoresThe distance covered is 100 m but the displacement is 0 m, because the finishing point is the same as the starting point. Displacement is a vector and depends only on the straight-line distance and direction between the two points.

The answer that scoresAcceleration = (final velocity − initial velocity) ÷ time = (8 − 2) ÷ 2 = 3 m/s².

The answer that scoresMomentum = mass × velocity. A 95 kg forward at 7 m/s has 665 kg m/s, while a 75 kg back at 9 m/s has 675 kg m/s, so the lighter player has more momentum because velocity is the greater factor here.

The answer that scoresA horizontal line on a speed-time graph shows constant speed, so acceleration is zero. A performer who has stopped would be shown by the line dropping to zero on the speed axis.

The answer that scoresThe leg muscles apply a large action force backwards and downwards against the blocks. By Newton's third law the blocks push back with an equal and opposite reaction force. Because that force is greater than the resisting forces of weight, friction and air resistance, the forces are unbalanced and the sprinter accelerates, as described by Newton's second law.

The answer that scoresForce = mass × acceleration, so acceleration = force ÷ mass. For the same muscular force, a larger mass produces a smaller acceleration. A 90 kg forward has greater inertia than a 70 kg back, so they take longer to reach top speed from a standing start.

The answer that scoresFriction opposes movement between the foot and the ground, but it also provides the grip that lets the performer apply a backward action force, so the ground can push them forward. Without friction between the foot and the ground there would be no reaction force to accelerate the performer.

The answer that scoresWeight is a force, measured in newtons, calculated as mass × gravitational field strength. A performer of mass 70 kg has a weight of 70 × 9.81 = 686.7 N.

The answer that scoresAngular momentum is conserved because no external force acts on the performer in mid-air. Tucking brings the mass closer to the axis of rotation, which decreases the moment of inertia. Since angular momentum = moment of inertia × angular velocity, the angular velocity must increase, so the performer rotates faster.

The answer that scoresTucking reduces the distribution of mass from the axis of rotation, so the moment of inertia decreases. As angular momentum is conserved, angular velocity increases and the performer rotates more quickly.

The answer that scoresMoment of inertia depends on the mass of the body and on the distribution of that mass from the axis of rotation. A performer can reduce their moment of inertia without losing any mass simply by bringing the limbs close to the axis.

The answer that scoresAngular motion is created by an external force that passes outside the centre of mass. In a netball pivot the player pushes against the ground with the ball of the foot, and because that force acts outside the centre of mass it turns the body about a vertical axis.

The answer that scoresA shot put has a large mass for its small, streamlined surface area, so air resistance is negligible and gravity is the only force acting — its path is a symmetrical parabola. A shuttlecock has a very small mass for its large feathered surface area, so air resistance is significant and slows it during flight, making its path non-parabolic.

The answer that scoresThe horizontal component of velocity stays constant throughout flight, so the projectile covers equal horizontal distances in equal time intervals. Gravity acts on the vertical component, so the projectile decelerates as it rises, then accelerates as it falls.

The answer that scoresThe optimum angle of release is 45° only when release height and landing height are equal. When the object is released above the landing height — as with a shot put — a lower angle of release gives a greater horizontal displacement, because the object already has extra height to fall from.

The answer that scoresA clear has a non-parabolic path because the shuttlecock's large surface area relative to its mass produces significant air resistance, so it decelerates in flight and drops more steeply than a parabola would predict.

The answer that scoresA performer is stable when the line of gravity from the centre of mass falls within the base of support. Their stability is increased by widening the base of support, lowering the centre of mass, keeping the centre of mass over the centre of the base, and, to a lesser extent, having a greater body mass and therefore greater inertia.

The answer that scoresWidening the stance enlarges the base of support, so the line of gravity can move further to one side before it passes outside the base and the performer topples.

The answer that scoresA lower centre of mass increases stability because the centre of mass has further to move before it passes outside the base of support, so a greater displacement is needed to unbalance the performer.

The answer that scoresThe forward's greater mass means greater inertia, so a larger force is needed to move or topple him. In addition, he crouches with a wide base of support and a lowered centre of mass, keeping his line of gravity within the base, which increases his stability further.

The answer that scoresDeoxygenated blood enters the right atrium from the vena cava, passes through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle, and is then pumped through the pulmonary semilunar valve into the pulmonary artery to the lungs.

The answer that scoresThe left ventricle has the thickest myocardium because it pumps oxygenated blood around the whole body through the aorta; this is the longest distance and the greatest resistance to flow, so the most forceful contraction and highest pressure are needed.

The answer that scoresThe pulmonary vein carries oxygenated blood from the lungs into the left atrium. The pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs.

The answer that scoresThe valves have no pumping action. They open and close according to the pressure difference between chambers, and their function is to prevent backflow, ensuring blood travels through the heart in one direction only.

The answer that scoresThe sinoatrial node in the wall of the right atrium initiates the electrical impulse and sets the rhythm of the heartbeat. The atrioventricular node receives the wave of excitation and delays it by about 0.1 seconds so the atria can empty before the ventricles contract.

The answer that scoresThe impulse passes down the bundle of His in the septum and then spreads up the ventricle walls through Purkyne tissue, so the ventricles contract from the apex upwards. This forces blood towards the pulmonary and aortic semilunar valves at the top of the ventricles so it can be ejected.

The answer that scoresValves are forced open by a pressure difference. In atrial systole, atrial pressure exceeds ventricular pressure, so the tricuspid and bicuspid valves open. In ventricular systole, ventricular pressure exceeds atrial pressure and the atrioventricular valves are forced shut, while the rising ventricular pressure opens the pulmonary and aortic semilunar valves.

The answer that scoresDiastole is the relaxation phase of the cardiac cycle. The atria and ventricles relax, ventricular pressure falls, the semilunar valves close to prevent backflow, the tricuspid and bicuspid valves open, and blood flows from the vena cava and pulmonary vein into the atria and on into the ventricles so the heart refills.

The answer that scoresCardiac output is the volume of blood ejected from the left ventricle in one minute, measured in litres per minute. Heart rate is measured in beats per minute.

The answer that scoresStroke volume rises from 60–80 ml at rest to 100–120 ml during sub-maximal exercise, then plateaus. At very high intensities diastole is shortened, so the ventricle has less time to fill and stroke volume cannot increase further.

The answer that scoresResting cardiac output is the same for both, at 4.8–6.4 l/min. The trained athlete achieves it with a lower resting heart rate (30–70 bpm) and a larger resting stroke volume (80–120 ml), so a lower heart rate is multiplied by a bigger stroke volume.

The answer that scoresReceptors send impulses to the cardiac control centre in the medulla oblongata, which increases sympathetic stimulation of the sinoatrial node. This raises heart rate and the force of contraction; during recovery the parasympathetic system, through the vagus nerve, slows it again.

The answer that scoresVasoconstriction is a decrease in the diameter of the arterioles caused by contraction of smooth muscle in their walls, which reduces blood flow into that capillary bed. This is what happens in the digestive system during exercise so that blood can be redirected to the working muscles.

The answer that scoresDuring exercise chemoreceptors and mechanoreceptors inform the vasomotor control centre in the medulla oblongata. It increases sympathetic stimulation of the arterioles, causing vasoconstriction in the digestive system and vasodilation in the working muscles and skin, so the cardiac output is redistributed by the vascular shunt to where the oxygen demand is.

The answer that scoresBlood returns to the heart through six mechanisms: the skeletal muscle pump, valves, the respiratory pump, gravity, smooth muscle or venous tone, and cardiac suction. Together they overcome the low pressure in the veins.

The answer that scoresPrecapillary sphincters are rings of smooth muscle at the entrance to the capillary beds. When they constrict, blood bypasses that capillary bed; when they dilate, the bed fills with blood. They are controlled by the vasomotor control centre through the sympathetic nervous system, not by the cardiac control centre.

The answer that scoresAt rest, expiration is passive: the diaphragm and external intercostals relax and the elastic tissue of the lungs and chest wall recoils, raising the pressure inside the thoracic cavity so air is forced out. The internal intercostals are recruited only during exercise.

The answer that scoresMinute ventilation = breathing rate × tidal volume = 15 × 0.5 = 7.5 litres per minute, which sits at the top of the untrained resting range of 6.0–7.5 l/min.

The answer that scoresChemoreceptors detect the increase in carbon dioxide and the fall in pH in the blood and send impulses to the respiratory control centre in the medulla oblongata, which increases the rate and depth of breathing so that more carbon dioxide is expired.

The answer that scoresVital capacity is the maximum volume of air that can be expired after a maximal inspiration: tidal volume + inspiratory reserve volume + expiratory reserve volume, around 4.7 litres. Total lung volume is vital capacity plus residual volume, around 5.9 litres.

The answer that scoresDuring exercise the working muscles use oxygen faster, so the partial pressure of oxygen in the blood arriving at the muscles falls and the partial pressure of oxygen in the alveolar air stays high. The diffusion gradient from the alveoli into the blood is therefore steeper, so oxygen diffuses into the blood more quickly and is carried to the muscles by haemoglobin.

The answer that scoresAt the lungs the high partial pressure of oxygen causes haemoglobin to associate with oxygen, forming oxyhaemoglobin in the red blood cells. At the muscles the partial pressure of oxygen is lower, so oxyhaemoglobin dissociates and releases oxygen, which diffuses into the muscle tissue.

The answer that scoresMyoglobin is found inside skeletal muscle. It has a higher affinity for oxygen than haemoglobin, so it stores oxygen in the muscle and releases it when the partial pressure of oxygen in the muscle falls during hard exercise.

The answer that scoresBreathing is the mechanical movement of air into and out of the lungs, controlled by the respiratory control centre, and its rate increases during exercise. Respiration is the chemical breakdown of glucose inside the muscle cells to release energy, producing carbon dioxide as a waste product.

The answer that scoresCarbon dioxide is carried back to the lungs mainly as bicarbonate ions in the plasma, with some bound to haemoglobin and a small amount dissolved unchanged in the plasma. At the lungs it diffuses out of the blood into the alveoli down its partial pressure gradient and is expired.

The answer that scoresA basketball free throw is a closed skill: the ball, the hoop and the distance are all predictable, so the shooter can set up and repeat exactly the same movement every time.

The answer that scoresFront crawl is a continuous skill: it is cyclical with no clear beginning or end, so the swimmer can stop at any point in the cycle.

The answer that scoresA tennis serve is internally paced: the server throws the ball up and chooses exactly when to strike it, so the timing of the movement is controlled by the performer.

The answer that scoresThe triple jump is a high organisation skill because hop, step and jump are tightly linked and depend on each other's timing, so they cannot be practised in isolation without losing the rhythm of the full approach and take-off.

The answer that scoresAbility is an innate trait a performer is born with. It underpins the development of skills, because the learned skill is built on the ability underneath it.

The answer that scoresShooting and passing are learned skills. The abilities that underpin them, such as hand-eye coordination and balance, are innate traits that the performer has from birth and that support the learning of those skills.

The answer that scoresAbilities are enduring: they are stable and long-lasting, so they remain with the performer even after a break from training. Skills, by contrast, are learned and can be lost through lack of practice.

The answer that scoresStrong abilities give the performer potential and mean they will generally learn skills faster, but the skills themselves must still be taught and practised. Ability alone does not produce a skilled performance.

The answer that scoresA motor programme is a stored plan of movement in the brain, made up of a series of subroutines completed in the correct order and sent to the muscles as nerve impulses.

The answer that scoresThe subroutines of the tennis serve, such as the toss, the leg drive and the wrist snap, are parts of one motor programme. They are linked and run in order, and the skill only exists when they are performed together in the correct sequence.

The answer that scoresThe performer holds one generalised throwing programme. For each throw they adapt it, changing the force, the angle and the speed to suit the distance and the target, which is why the same stored plan can produce a flat throw and a high lob.

The answer that scoresThe motor programme is initiated when the brain selects the appropriate stored plan for the situation and sends it as a set of nerve impulses to the muscles, which then contract in the correct order.

The answer that scoresNegative reinforcement is removing something unpleasant after the correct response, so the bond is strengthened — for example, cancelling extra conditioning work once the squad completes the passing drill correctly. Punishment is adding something unpleasant after the wrong response, which weakens the bond.

The answer that scoresCognitive theory (Gestalt) says the learner should practise the whole skill, because the pattern of movement and the relationships between its parts are the skill. The coach presents the complete movement and allows the learner to reach insight.

The answer that scoresIn Bandura's theory the learner must attend to the demonstration, retain it, physically reproduce it, and be motivated to do so. Observation starts the process, but the skill is only learned once the observed movement is reproduced in practice.

The answer that scoresOperant conditioning is practical and gives the coach direct control over behaviour, which makes it useful with large groups. Its limitations are that it depends on many repetitions, ignores the performer's thinking and decision-making, and can demotivate performers if punishment is over-used.

The answer that scoresTrial and error is the learner attempting different movements until one produces a successful outcome. That successful response is then reinforced, so it is repeated while the unsuccessful attempts die out.

The answer that scoresA motor programme is the stored generalised series of movements, while a schema is the set of rules, built from experience, that is used to modify that programme so it suits a new situation.

The answer that scoresThe recall schema uses knowledge of initial conditions and knowledge of response specifications to select and initiate the movement. Sensory consequences and response outcomes belong to the recognition schema, which evaluates the movement after it has been made.

The answer that scoresSchema theory argues the performer stores a set of rules and uses them to generate the movement required on the day. This is why a performer can produce a novel movement, such as a pass over a distance they have never practised, without having a stored programme for it.

The answer that scoresSchema theory's strength is that it explains how a performer adapts and varies a skill once some experience of it exists. It cannot explain how the first movement of its kind is produced, because there is not yet any experience to build the rules from.

The answer that scoresSensory information is taken in by the sense organs, such as the eyes. Perception is the interpretation of that information, where the performer gives it meaning and recognises what it means for the game.

The answer that scoresDecision making selects the most appropriate response from the options available. The selected response is then carried out by the effector mechanism, which sends impulses to the muscles to produce the movement.

The answer that scoresThe performer has a limited capacity to process information. If too much arrives at once the decision is delayed or made inaccurately, which is why selective attention is used to filter out irrelevant cues.

The answer that scoresFeedback is information about the response returned to the system. Some of it arrives during the movement, allowing immediate correction, and some arrives after it, allowing the performer to judge and adjust future attempts.

The answer that scoresKnowledge of results tells the performer about the outcome of the movement, such as whether the ball went in. Information about the technique, such as the position of the elbow, is knowledge of performance.

The answer that scoresNegative feedback is information that the movement was incorrect and needs to be adjusted. It can be delivered in a supportive way and is most effective when combined with positive feedback about what was done correctly.

The answer that scoresConcurrent feedback is received during the movement, so the performer can adjust the skill while it is happening. Feedback given after the movement is complete is terminal feedback, and it is used to judge the attempt and adjust the next one.

The answer that scoresIn the cognitive stage the performer cannot yet read intrinsic feedback accurately, so they need frequent extrinsic feedback, especially knowledge of performance, to learn what the correct technique should feel and look like. Intrinsic feedback becomes the main source as the skill reaches the autonomous stage.

The answer that scoresShort-term memory can hold roughly seven items for about 30 seconds. Long-term memory has an unlimited capacity and a permanent duration, and it stores motor programmes and knowledge that have been rehearsed.

The answer that scoresInformation is held in the short-term sensory store for less than a second and then fades. Selective attention decides which of it is important enough to pass into short-term memory, and everything not attended to is lost.

The answer that scoresRehearsal is repeating information or a movement, either by going over it mentally or by repeating the skill in practice. Repeating it keeps it in short-term memory long enough for it to be encoded and stored in long-term memory.

The answer that scoresA motor programme is stored in long-term memory and retrieved from there when the skill is performed. Short-term memory is used to hold the immediate information the performer is working with, such as the position of an opponent.

The answer that scoresResponse time is the total time from the presentation of the stimulus to the completion of the movement, so it is reaction time plus movement time.

The answer that scoresHick's law states that reaction time increases as the number of stimulus–response alternatives increases, rising in step with the logarithm of the number of choices. More options means more decision making, so the reaction is slower.

The answer that scoresThe psychological refractory period is the brief delay when a second stimulus arrives while the first is still being processed. Because information is handled through a single channel, the response to the second stimulus is delayed, which is what a fake pass or a late change of direction exploits.

The answer that scoresAnticipation is predicting the stimulus before it occurs. It shortens effective reaction time and lets a defender commit early, but it carries risk: if the opponent uses disguise or a fake, the defender is already committed in the wrong direction and cannot recover.

The answer that scoresPart practice suits complex, low-organisation, serial skills where the subroutines can be separated, because it reduces overload and lets a specific part be corrected. It is unsuitable when the parts cannot be separated without losing the timing of the whole, and the performer may struggle to put the parts back together.

The answer that scoresMassed practice has little or no rest, so it builds fitness and rehearses technique under game-like fatigue, which is useful for simple, discrete skills. The disadvantage is that fatigue makes technique break down, so errors and bad habits are repeated and concentration drops, which is why it is unsuitable for dangerous or highly technical skills.

The answer that scoresVaried practice is practising the same skill in changing conditions, such as feeding the ball at different heights, speeds and positions, so the performer learns to adapt the movement. It develops the schemas needed for open skills because the performer adjusts the movement rather than repeating it.

The answer that scoresWhole-part-whole suits an experienced performer who can already perform most of the skill but has one persistent fault: they perform the whole skill, isolate and correct the weak part, then perform the whole skill again to re-integrate it. A beginner would more likely use part or progressive part practice for a complex skill, or whole practice for a simple one.

The answer that scoresVerbal guidance is quick and directs attention, but for a cognitive-stage performer it works only if it is brief and combined with visual guidance, because the beginner has no accurate picture of the movement and cannot convert a long explanation into action. As the performer reaches the associative and autonomous stages, verbal guidance becomes the main tool for fine technique and tactics.

The answer that scoresManual guidance gives the performer a kinaesthetic sense of the correct movement that a demonstration cannot, and it allows a dangerous skill to be practised safely, which makes it useful for beginners in the cognitive stage. The disadvantage is dependence: if the support is not faded out, the performer never learns to produce the movement unaided.

The answer that scoresMechanical guidance is guidance provided by equipment, such as a float supporting a swimmer's legs, a harness holding a performer in position, or a batting tee fixing the ball's height so the correct contact position can be repeated. It allows many repetitions without a coach and gives the performer immediate information about the movement, but the performer can become dependent on the aid.

The answer that scoresAn autonomous performer needs minimal external guidance, because their intrinsic feedback is reliable and they can detect and correct their own errors. Brief verbal guidance about tactics and fine technique, plus video analysis, is more useful than demonstration or manual support, which would reduce independence and add nothing they cannot already feel.

The answer that scoresIn the cognitive stage the performer has little or no mental picture of the skill, so the movements are jerky and inconsistent, many large errors are made, and the performer cannot detect or correct their own errors. They rely on demonstration and on the coach's extrinsic feedback to work out what the correct action is.

The answer that scoresThe associative performer has established a mental picture and performs the skill correctly for increasing periods, with fewer and less basic errors that reappear under pressure. The movement is smoother and better timed, they can begin to self-correct, and they still benefit from terminal knowledge of performance and from varied practice.

The answer that scoresThe autonomous performer uses intrinsic feedback, including concurrent feedback during the movement, and needs much less extrinsic feedback than a beginner. However, brief verbal guidance on tactics and fine technique, and video analysis, are still useful, and continued practice is needed or performance can slip back towards the associative stage.

The answer that scoresThe cognitive performer should use distributed practice in fixed conditions, so they can repeat a stable technique with time between attempts to process feedback, using whole practice for simple skills or part practice for complex ones. Varied practice is introduced as the performer moves into the associative stage, where the technique can be adapted to open, match-like conditions.

The answer that scoresProactive transfer is when a skill learned earlier affects the learning of a skill learned afterwards — for example, a cricketer's overarm bowling action helping him learn the overarm throw in goalball.

The answer that scoresZero transfer means the previously learned skill has no effect on the new skill. A competitive swimmer learning a table tennis serve is neither helped nor hindered by swimming.

The answer that scoresTo limit negative transfer the coach should highlight the differences between the skills — contrasting the grip, backswing and wrist action — and avoid teaching conflicting skills in the same session.

The answer that scoresBilateral transfer is when a skill learned on one side of the body transfers to the same skill on the other side, for example a footballer's right-footed kicking action improving the left foot.

The answer that scoresExtrinsic motivation comes from outside the performer. Tangible rewards are things they can physically receive, such as medals, trophies and prize money. Intangible rewards have no physical form, such as praise, recognition and being selected for the team.

The answer that scoresExtrinsic rewards produce a quick rise in effort and are useful for beginners, but their effect stops when the reward stops, and over-use can replace intrinsic enjoyment with a need for reward. A coach should use them to start a performer off and then build intrinsic motivation.

The answer that scoresIntrinsic motivation comes from within the performer, such as enjoyment of the sport, pride in mastering a skill, or the personal satisfaction of improving. Wanting to beat others depends on the result, so it is better described as extrinsic.

The answer that scoresIntrinsic motivation is more durable and supports long-term adherence, but extrinsic rewards give a quicker lift in effort and are effective with beginners. The strongest approach uses extrinsic rewards early on and develops intrinsic motivation so it takes over.

The answer that scoresThey share features — both involve physical activity, skill learning and values such as fair play — but they differ in purpose and participation. Sport is competitive and selective, with complex rules and officials, whereas physical education is planned, progressive learning in the school curriculum, delivered to all pupils and teacher-led, with inclusion rather than winning as its aim.

The answer that scoresPhysical education is education through movement, not a lower level of sport. Its purpose is planned, progressive learning across a broad range of activities for all pupils, developing physical competence and understanding, whereas sport's purpose is competition and winning at whatever level the performers compete.

The answer that scoresThe relationship runs both ways. PE introduces a broad range of activities and teaches the skills, rules and tactics that allow pupils to take up sport, supporting talent identification and pathways to excellence. Sport supplies the content, competitive formats and values that PE uses, and success in sport can raise the status, funding and facilities available to PE.

The answer that scoresA competitive game inside a lesson is still physical education, because it is planned and teacher-led, delivered to all pupils and designed to develop learning and physical competence. It becomes sport when winning is the purpose, entry is selective, and the activity is governed by complex rules, officials and predetermined boundaries, numbers and time.

The answer that scoresSport is competitive — the contest and the result give it its purpose. It has complex rules enforced by officials, is highly structured through leagues and governing bodies, has predetermined boundaries, numbers, time constraints, equipment and roles, and involves tactics and strategies used to gain an advantage.

The answer that scoresPredetermined means the conditions of the contest are fixed in advance: the boundaries, the number of players, the time constraints, the equipment specifications and the roles each performer plays. Both sides and the officials know these before the contest begins, which makes the competition fair.

The answer that scoresSport's values — sportsmanship and fair play, the participation ethic, health and well-being, self-realisation and social control — sit alongside real problems. For the individual there is injury, stress, burnout, doping and lost opportunity; for the sport there is damaged reputation, lost sponsorship, corruption and a loss of the traditional values it claims to promote.

The answer that scoresFor the individual, doping brings a ban that ends competition, damages reputation and carries long-term health risks. For the sport, the same case damages the sport's image, can cost it sponsors and funding, and reduces trust among spectators, parents and future participants.

The answer that scoresAs a form of social control, sport sets standards of behaviour through its rules, discipline and codes of conduct, and provides people with a supervised, purposeful way to spend their time, which can reduce antisocial behaviour and give structure and routine.

The answer that scoresPE and sport are distinct although related. PE is planned, progressive, teacher-led learning inside the school curriculum, delivered to all pupils, in which pupils learn to move and become more physically competent across a broad range of activities. Sport is selective and competitive, has complex fixed rules and officials, and is led by coaches, clubs and governing bodies.

The answer that scoresPE is delivered to all pupils, so every pupil takes part regardless of ability, gender or disability and the teacher adapts the activity so they can access it. Selecting the most able happens in sport, not in PE.

The answer that scoresBecoming more physically competent means improving the ability to perform movement skills with control, coordination, balance and confidence — for example producing a safe, controlled landing in netball. Fitness may improve at the same time, but competence refers to the quality of the movement.

The answer that scoresTeacher-led means the qualified teacher decides the content, the order of learning and how progress is judged, and provides the demonstrations and feedback. Pupils still practise and play, but the teaching decisions are the teacher's.

The answer that scoresParticipation is affected by economic status, sociocultural influences, family and peers, facilities, age, gender and disability. For example, where facilities are distant and there is no transport, a person who wants to take part may still be unable to, so the barrier is provision rather than attitude.

The answer that scoresEconomic status affects participation because taking part usually has costs — club fees, kit, equipment, coaching and travel. Where income is low those costs become a barrier and activity is dropped from the budget first; where income is higher the barrier disappears, because transport and paid coaching can be bought.

The answer that scoresGender remains a factor because expectations and opportunities still differ: some activities are still stereotyped as suitable for one sex, coverage and funding are uneven, and the number of teams and coaches available to each sex differs. Where the stereotype is strong, participation falls even though the rules permit it.

The answer that scoresFor the individual, regular participation improves physical health and fitness, such as a stronger heart and healthier body composition, and it improves mental health and well-being by reducing stress and raising self-esteem. For society, it reduces the cost of treating preventable illness and reduces working days lost to sickness.

The answer that scoresAn elite performer is at the top of the performance pyramid, having reached excellence. They perform at national, international or Olympic standard, they are usually professional or paid for performing, and the level is achieved by very few people.

The answer that scoresReaching the elite level requires identification of the performer's potential, a pathway through specialist schools, clubs, academies, college or university and into regional and national squads, and provision of sufficient funding, high-quality facilities, high-quality coaches, high-level competition and science support.

The answer that scoresAn elitist policy raises standards, because concentrating funding, facilities, coaching and competition on the most promising performers produces international success, role models and sponsorship for the sport. Its limitation is that only a few benefit: money spent on a small squad is not spent on facilities and coaching for everyone else, so grassroots participation can fall and the base of the pyramid, which supplies future talent, shrinks.

The answer that scoresProvision is what is supplied to the performer — funding, high-quality facilities, high-quality coaches, high-level competition and science support. Pathways are the route the performer travels and the systems that carry them along it: specialist schools, clubs, academies, selection and talent identification, college or university, scholarships, governing bodies and regional and national squads.

The answer that scoresPerformers use prohibited PEDs under pressure to win, to increase fitness such as strength or endurance, to reduce weight or body fat, to speed up recovery after training or injury, to increase the intensity of training, to reduce the effects of fatigue, to increase concentration, to participate despite injury or mask pain, to hide the presence of other drugs, and because they believe others are using them.

The answer that scoresFor the individual, doping causes serious health damage such as heart, liver and hormonal problems and costs them their medals, prize money and career through a period of ineligibility. For the sport, results and records lose credibility, so spectators, sponsors and broadcasters withdraw and funding falls. For society, young people copy the behaviour of their role models and trust in sport is damaged.

The answer that scoresTesting reduces doping because in-competition and out-of-competition urine and blood samples, whereabouts rules and longitudinal monitoring make a doping programme hard to hide. Its limitation is that testing is costly, needs international co-operation, and struggles with substances that are difficult to detect, so it deters and detects but cannot eliminate doping on its own.

The answer that scoresThe individual makes the decision and takes the health risk, so they carry the responsibility for their own actions. However, the pressure to win, the size of the rewards, and the belief that rivals are already doping are created by the sport and the coaches around them, so prevention works better when funding, medical support and education reduce the need to choose doping.

The answer that scoresSanctioned physical contact is permitted by the laws and intended to compete, such as a tackle at chest height that wins the ball. Violence is outside the laws and intended to harm or intimidate, such as a shoulder charge to the head after the ball has gone. The difference is the laws and the intent, not the severity of the impact.

The answer that scoresSpectators become violent when a cause raises the crowd's arousal and removes restraint. Alcohol lowers inhibition, so provocation that would be ignored is answered with aggression. In a large crowd individuals also feel less personally responsible for their actions, and strong identification with the team means a disputed decision is felt as a personal attack.

The answer that scoresFor the individual: injury, a ban, a fine, loss of income and a damaged reputation. For the sport: a damaged image, so sponsors and broadcasters withdraw and income falls. For society: the violence is a criminal offence, and young spectators copy aggression they see go unpunished, so sport loses its value as a positive influence on participation and health.

The answer that scoresStewarding and a visible police presence deter and allow early intervention, but they are expensive and act only after someone has already chosen to be violent. Education and codes of conduct are slower, but they are the only strategies that change the decision itself, in both performers and spectators. The strongest approach combines both.

The answer that scoresMatch-fixing is agreeing in advance what the result or scoreline of a match will be, so it is played as a performance rather than a contest. Betting is a separate form: the offence is that an insider bets on their own match and then acts to make that bet win.

The answer that scoresInsider information is information not available to the public, such as the team sheet, an injury or the tactics, passed on or used by a performer, coach, official or support staff so that a bet is placed with an advantage other punters cannot have. It corrupts the market even though the match itself is played honestly.

The answer that scoresA life ban is a strong deterrent once a case is proven, but it acts after the result has been corrupted and depends entirely on detection. Education combined with an integrity unit reduces manipulation most, because it improves the two things every other strategy relies on: the performer's willingness to refuse or report an approach, and the sport's ability to notice one.

The answer that scoresTanking is deliberately losing a match in order to gain an advantage, such as a better draw in the next round or a stronger position in the league. Because a genuine defeat looks identical, it has to be shown through evidence such as unexplained selection changes, a visible drop in effort and performance data flagged by monitoring software.

The answer that scoresFor the performer or team, money means full-time training and better support, but also pressure to win and less time to recover. For the sponsor, money buys awareness but cannot guarantee behaviour or results. For the sport, it funds growth but changes rules for television. For the primary spectator it improves facilities but raises prices, and for the remote spectator it widens access but at the cost of subscriptions.

The answer that scoresThe golden triangle is a relationship in which all three partners depend on each other. The sport provides the event the media needs, the media provides the audience the sponsor pays for, and the sponsor provides the money the sport needs. The sport does lose some control, because rules, formats and start times are changed to suit television, but that is a dependency rather than an ownership.

The answer that scoresPrimary spectators attend the event. They gain better facilities, big screens and the live atmosphere, but pay higher prices and accept start times set for television. Secondary spectators watch remotely. They gain access from anywhere, with multiple angles, replays and analysis, but pay subscription costs, lose the atmosphere, and see the event only as the broadcaster chooses to show it.

The answer that scoresA sponsor gains awareness, a targeted audience, a healthy image and hospitality opportunities, but it cannot guarantee that the team will perform or behave, so it risks negative publicity if the sport is hit by a drugs, violence or corruption scandal. The sport in turn gains money, equipment and facilities, which is why both sides accept the arrangement.

The answer that scoresA force plate is a platform containing sensors that measure the force a performer applies to the ground and how that force changes over time. A coach uses it to measure ground reaction force in a jump or a sprint start, so a weakness in technique or a difference between the two legs after injury can be identified and corrected.

The answer that scoresFor the performer and coach, technology means better equipment, technique analysis and injury prevention, but it widens the gap between well-funded and under-funded performers and can replace the coach's judgement with data. For the official it reduces clear error but slows the game, and for primary spectators it explains decisions but breaks the atmosphere, while the remote audience gains the most from the extra angles and analysis.

The answer that scoresVideo replay gives the official evidence from more than one angle at reduced speed, so obvious mistakes are corrected and the credibility of the result improves. The error is not removed, because the choice of frame and the measurement of the line are still judgements, and the review stops play, which is why a decision that decides a result justifies the interruption and a routine one does not.

The answer that scoresCompression wear is close-fitting clothing that supports the muscles, manages heat and moisture and improves comfort, which may help recovery and can reduce muscle vibration. The effect on performance is small and much debated, so the reliable benefits to quote are comfort, moisture control and support rather than a direct gain in speed.