IGCSE PE 0413 · Area 3 · Skill Acquisition & Psychology

The Simple Information Processing Model

The simple information processing model explains what happens between a performer noticing something and acting on it: input, decision-making, output and feedback, with feedback looping back to the start. Cambridge tests the role of each stage, the difference between short-term and long-term memory, and why performers can only handle a limited amount of information at once.

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Syllabus coverage

  • The stages of a basic information processing model: input
  • The stages of a basic information processing model: decision-making
  • The stages of a basic information processing model: output
  • The stages of a basic information processing model: feedback
  • Identify the role of each stage
  • Explain the difference between short-term and long-term memory
  • Apply the stages of information processing to physical activities
  • Explain the concept of limited channel capacity / single-channel hypothesis

Part of the IGCSE PE 0413 syllabus 0413 / 0995.

The simple information processing modelINPUTInformation taken inthrough the sensesDECISIONMAKINGThe brain selectsa responseOUTPUTThe response isexecutedFEEDBACKInformation aboutthe resultFeedback loops back to the performer — this is what makes learning possibleShort-term memory holds the information being used right now. Long-term memory stores learned motor programmes.Limited channel capacity means too muchinformation at once overloads the system, which is why a coach simplifies, demonstrates, and gives oneinstruction at a time.
The simple information processing model: input to decision-making to output, with feedback returning from the output stage to the input stage to complete the loop.

Why a model is useful

The simple information processing model describes what happens between a performer seeing something and moving. There are four stages, always in the same order: input → decision-making → output, with feedback looping back to the start.

It is a cycle, not a straight line. Feedback returns to input, which is how a performer can adjust the second attempt after a poor first one instead of repeating the same error forever.

Learn the role of each stage separately. Cambridge asks you to identify what each one does, and one-mark questions are usually aimed straight at a single stage.

StageRoleNetball example
InputThe senses collect information from the display — what the performer can see and hearA centre sees the ball, the position of her team-mates and the defender's feet
Decision-makingThe brain interprets the information, compares it with past experiences in memory and selects a responseShe decides to pass wide to a team-mate who has broken free
OutputThe chosen decision is carried out as a movement, as the muscles produce the actionShe executes the chest pass
FeedbackInformation about the outcome and the quality of the performance is returned to the performer and loops back into inputShe sees the pass arrive slightly low, hears the coach, and adjusts the next pass
Order matters. An answer that puts decision-making before input, or leaves feedback out of the loop, is describing a different model from the one Cambridge lists.

Input — taking in the display

Input is the information the performer takes in through the senses, mostly sight and hearing, plus the sense of where the body is and what the muscles are doing.

The skill in this stage is knowing what to look at. A beginner watches the ball. An expert watches the opponent's hips, racket or body shape, because that is where the information about what happens next is held.

A poor input produces a poor decision, however good the technique is. A footballer who never lifts their head cannot make a good pass, because the information never reaches the decision-making stage.

Decision-making — choosing the response

Decision-making is where the performer makes sense of the input, matches it against similar situations held in memory, and chooses a response.

This stage draws directly on memory. Experience builds a library of situations to compare against, so an experienced performer recognises the pattern more quickly and picks a better option.

It is also the stage most affected by pressure. Anxiety and over-arousal narrow what the performer notices and slow down the choice, which is why a rattled player seems to make bad decisions rather than bad movements.

Output and feedback — the action and the loop

Output is the movement itself: the decision is sent to the muscles and the action is produced at the joints. The quality of the output depends on how well the motor programme has been learned.

Feedback is the information that comes back after the movement. Some of it is intrinsic, picked up by the performer's own senses — what the movement felt like, where the ball went. Some of it is extrinsic, coming from outside — a coach's comment, a whistle, a scoreboard, a team-mate.

Feedback returns to the input stage, which is what makes the model a loop. It is also what makes progress possible: without feedback, the performer has no way of knowing whether the output matched the intention.

Short-term and long-term memory

Short-term memory is the workspace. It holds the information the performer is using right now — the ball's position, the defender's movement — but its capacity is limited and the information is lost within seconds if it is not used.

Long-term memory is the store cupboard. It holds learned skills, tactics and past experiences for a very long time, and there is effectively no limit to how much it can hold.

Nothing travels straight from long-term memory to the muscles. It is retrieved into short-term memory so it can be compared with the current input and used in the decision, then the decision becomes the output.

Practice moves skills into long-term memory so they can be recalled automatically, which frees up the limited short-term workspace. That is why an expert can think about tactics while a beginner is still thinking about where their feet go.

Short-term memoryLong-term memory
What it holdsThe information being used at this momentLearned skills, tactics and past experiences
CapacityLimited — only a small number of itemsEffectively unlimited
DurationSeconds, and easily lostPermanent, held for a long time
Role in performanceThe workspace where the current decision is madeProvides the experience the current situation is compared against
Effect of practiceUsed less as skills become automaticGrows larger, so decisions become faster and better

Limited channel capacity and the single-channel hypothesis

Limited channel capacity means a performer can only process a small amount of information at one time. There is one channel and it is narrow, so information has to be dealt with in turn rather than all at once.

The single-channel hypothesis takes this one step further: the performer can only deal with one stream of information at a time. If two signals arrive together, one has to wait in a queue, and in that queue it is likely to be missed, acted on too late, or handled badly.

In practice this is why a coach who shouts three instructions at once gets none of them followed, and why a beginner facing an unfamiliar pitch or an unexpected spin makes an error that looks careless.

Experts appear to escape this because their skills are automatic. An automatic skill uses very little channel capacity, so the rest of the channel is free for reading the game. Automating the basics therefore buys attention — and that attention is what separates a competent performer from a skilled one.

Link this to skill classification: complex, open skills load the channel hardest, so the performer is most likely to be overloaded when the environment is changing fast.

Applying the model to a physical activity

Apply questions name an activity and expect you to run the four stages in order, using that activity. The strongest answers also say what happens next because of the feedback, because that shows the model is a loop and not a list.

  • Name the stage, then say what the performer does at that stage in this activity
  • Where you can, say what happens because of the feedback — it shows the loop, not just a list
  • For a closed skill such as a gymnastics routine, most of the feedback is intrinsic, because the performer feels the movement and sees only the result
ActivityInputDecision-makingOutputFeedback
Football (defender facing a through ball)Sees the ball travelling and the forward's runCompares the situation with ones from memory and decides to drop off rather than step upTurns and sprints to cover the runSees the forward's touch is heavy — that becomes the next input, and the defender decides to close the ball down
Badminton (returning serve)Watches the server's racket angle and the shuttle's flightDecides to play a drop shot rather than a clear, based on the server's positionMoves the racket slowly and gently to take the pace off the shuttleSees the shuttle land short and finds the next return easier, so repeats the choice
Netball (defender marking in the circle)Sees the shooter's feet and the position of the ballDecides whether to stay close or block the pass, based on where the shooter is lookingSteps across and raises the arms to contest the shotFeels she was beaten by the shooter's feint, so next time watches the hips rather than the eyes

Key terms you must be able to define

Input
The stage of the information processing model where the performer takes in information from the senses.
Decision-making
The stage of the information processing model where the brain interprets the input, compares it with memory and selects a response.
Output
The stage of the information processing model where the selected decision is carried out as a movement by the muscles.
Feedback
Information about the performance or its result that returns to the performer and loops back into input.
Short-term memory
A temporary store for the information being used at this moment, with a limited capacity, holding information only for a short time.
Long-term memory
A permanent store of learned skills, tactics and past experiences, with effectively unlimited capacity.
Limited channel capacity
The idea that a performer can only process a limited amount of information at any one time.
Single-channel hypothesis
The idea that a performer can only deal with one stream of information at a time, so simultaneous signals cause delays, missed information or errors.

Applied to your sport

Cambridge requires you to apply this knowledge to physical activities. Use these as models, then write your own for the sport you play.

Football

A midfielder receives the ball and looks up (input), decides whether to pass or drive forward (decision-making), plays the pass (output), then sees the pass was too slow (feedback) and plays it firmer next time.

Badminton

Reading the opponent's racket angle is the input stage, choosing between a drop shot and a clear is the decision, playing the shot is the output, and seeing where it lands gives the feedback.

Gymnastics

A gymnast on the beam takes in the beam and the position of the body (input), decides to make a small adjustment during the routine (decision-making), executes the movement (output), and feels whether the landing was balanced (feedback).

Table Tennis

Limited channel capacity is easy to see in table tennis: a player who is still thinking about the technique of the serve has no attention left to read the spin on the return, so the error comes from overload rather than poor technique.

Basketball

A player who has practised free throws until they are automatic uses very little channel capacity on the technique, leaving attention free to read the position of team-mates for the rebound.

Flashcards

Click a card to flip it. Mark honestly — the tracker uses this.

Q1Name the four stages of the simple information processing model, in order.
Input, decision-making, output, feedback.
Q2What is the role of the input stage?
The senses collect information from the display — what the performer can see, hear and feel about the body.
Q3What is the role of the decision-making stage?
The brain interprets the input, compares it with past experiences held in memory and selects a response.
Q4What is the role of the output stage?
The selected decision is carried out as a movement, as the muscles produce the action.
Q5What makes the model a loop rather than a list?
Feedback returns from the movement back into the input stage, so the performer can adjust the next attempt.
Q6State two differences between short-term and long-term memory.
Short-term memory has a limited capacity and lasts only seconds; long-term memory has effectively unlimited capacity and holds information permanently.
Q7What is held in long-term memory?
Learned skills, tactics and past experiences, which are retrieved into short-term memory to help decision-making.
Q8What is limited channel capacity?
The idea that a performer can only process a small amount of information at any one time.
Q9State the single-channel hypothesis.
A performer can only deal with one stream of information at a time, so two signals arriving together cause the second to queue and be missed or acted on late.
Q10Why does automating a skill help a performer make better decisions?
An automatic skill uses very little channel capacity, leaving attention free to take in more information and make a better choice.
Q11Apply the four stages to a badminton serve return.
Input: watch the server's racket angle; decision: choose a drop shot or a clear; output: play the shot with the right racket angle; feedback: see where the shuttle landed and adjust the next return.
0 of 11 marked as known

Exam-style questions

7 questions, 19 marks. Write your answer, then reveal the mark scheme and tick each point you actually made. Answering honestly here is what makes the rest of the site useful.

StateAO11 mark
State the first stage of the simple information processing model.

Mark scheme — tick each point you actually made

Examiner tip: One word is enough. Do not waste time describing the stage — a state question asks for the name.
IdentifyAO12 marks
Identify the stage of the information processing model in which each of the following happens: (a) the performer decides which pass to play; (b) the performer feels that the movement was off balance.

Mark scheme — tick each point you actually made

Examiner tip: One mark each. Feeling the movement is intrinsic feedback, which is still the feedback stage.
ExplainAO12 marks
Explain the difference between short-term memory and long-term memory.

Mark scheme — tick each point you actually made

Examiner tip: Two marks, two stores. Give a feature of each rather than describing one store twice.
ExplainAO23 marks
Explain how a basketball player uses each of input, decision-making and output when playing a pass.

Mark scheme — tick each point you actually made

Examiner tip: Three stages named in the question means three separate points, each using the basketball pass rather than a generic description.
ExplainAO23 marks
Explain, using the concept of limited channel capacity, why a beginner in table tennis often makes errors when facing an unfamiliar spin.

Mark scheme — tick each point you actually made

Examiner tip: Build the chain: limited capacity → technique takes the attention → poor input → wrong decision → error. Three marks means three links, not three statements of the same thing.
ExplainAO24 marks
Explain how feedback improves a football goalkeeper's performance, referring to the loop in the information processing model.

Mark scheme — tick each point you actually made

Examiner tip: The fourth mark comes from showing the loop closing. A description of feedback that stops at 'the coach tells them' cannot reach the top marks.
ExplainAO24 marks
Using a physical activity of your choice, explain how decision-making depends on both input and memory.

Mark scheme — tick each point you actually made

Examiner tip: The question names two dependencies, so cover both: what comes in from input, and what is retrieved from memory.

Exam technique for this topic

  • Keep the four stages in order: input, decision-making, output, feedback. An answer with the stages in the wrong sequence loses marks even if every word is correct.
  • For a 'role of each stage' question, give one clear sentence per stage — what goes in or out of that stage, not what the performer feels.
  • Memory questions want the contrast. Always give both sides: capacity, duration and what each store holds.
  • For the single-channel hypothesis, explain the consequence — information is missed, delayed or acted on incorrectly because two signals cannot be processed at once.
  • When applying the model to an activity, use the activity named in the question at every stage and finish with what the feedback changed.

Why students lose marks here

A student wroteThe information processing model is input, thinking, movement and then you do it again.
Why it loses marksThe stages are named vaguely and the final stage is described as repeating the skill rather than as feedback. 'Thinking' does not show that decision-making compares input with memory.
The answer that scoresThe model is input, where the senses take in information from the display; decision-making, where the brain interprets that information, compares it with memory and selects a response; output, where the decision is carried out as a movement; and feedback, which returns information about the performance and loops back into input.
A student wroteShort-term memory is where you keep your skills and long-term memory is where you remember the score.
Why it loses marksThis reverses the two stores. Skills and experience are held in long-term memory; the information being used at this moment is held briefly in short-term memory.
The answer that scoresShort-term memory holds the information being used right now, such as the position of the ball and the defender, for a short time and with a small capacity. Long-term memory holds learned skills, tactics and past experiences permanently and with effectively unlimited capacity, and they are retrieved into short-term memory to help the decision.
A student wroteFeedback is what the coach tells you.
Why it loses marksThis only describes extrinsic feedback. Feedback also comes from the performer's own senses, which is the intrinsic form, and feedback is the stage that loops back into input.
The answer that scoresFeedback is the information that returns to the performer after the movement. Some of it is intrinsic, such as feeling the balance of a landing or seeing where the ball went; some of it is extrinsic, such as a coach's comment or a scoreboard. Either way it loops back into input so the performer can adjust the next attempt.
A student wroteLimited channel capacity means you cannot remember many skills at once.
Why it loses marksThis confuses the idea of processing limits with memory storage. Limited channel capacity is about how much information can be handled at one moment, not how much is stored.
The answer that scoresLimited channel capacity means the performer can only process a small amount of information at one time, and the single-channel hypothesis says only one stream can be dealt with at once. If two signals arrive together, one queues, so information is missed or acted on too late.
A student wroteA beginner makes mistakes because they are not trying hard enough.
Why it loses marksThis ignores information processing altogether. Beginners make mistakes because the skill still uses their limited channel capacity, so there is no attention left for reading the situation.
The answer that scoresA beginner makes mistakes because the technique still requires conscious thought, which uses up most of their limited channel capacity. With no attention spare to take in the input, the decision-making stage works on poor information, so the output is wrong. Once the skill becomes automatic it uses far less capacity and the performer can read the game.

Where this fits in IGCSE PE 0413

This page is one topic of Cambridge IGCSE PE 0413 / 0995. IGCSE PE 0413 is the course home: every area and every topic in Cambridge's own order, the papers you sit and what each one tests, and the exam-practice tools. The full topic list, with each topic linked to its revision page, is on the IGCSE PE 0413 syllabus page.