Why did I lose the mark?

The answer that scoresThe skeleton protects vital organs — the cranium protects the brain, so a blow to the head is absorbed by bone rather than damaging the brain. It also provides a surface for muscle attachment, so a contracting muscle can pull on a bone and produce movement at a joint.

The answer that scoresThe femur is a long bone: it is longer than it is wide and acts as a lever to produce movement and generate force at the hip and knee.

The answer that scoresBone marrow inside bones produces red blood cells, which carry oxygen to working muscles during exercise.

The answer that scoresSynovial fluid is secreted by the synovial membrane into the joint cavity. It lubricates the joint so the bone surfaces slide over one another easily, reducing friction, and it cushions the ends of the bones from impact.

The answer that scoresA ball and socket joint has the greater range of movement - the rounded head fits into a cup-shaped socket so the limb can move in three planes. A hinge joint moves in one plane only (flexion and extension) but is much more stable, because the bones interlock and strong ligaments hold them tightly.

The answer that scoresFlexion is movement that decreases the angle at a joint, bending it - for example the knee bending as a footballer draws their foot back before a shot.

The answer that scoresThe knee is a hinge joint: the femur and tibia meet so that the joint moves in one plane only, allowing flexion and extension but no rotation or sideways movement.

The answer that scoresThe biceps are the agonist (prime mover) for flexion at the elbow - they contract to pull the forearm up and bend the joint - while the triceps relax and lengthen as the antagonist. When the arm straightens, their roles swap: the triceps become the agonist for extension and the biceps become the antagonist.

The answer that scoresThe hamstring group is the muscle group at the back of the thigh. It flexes the knee and extends the hip, and it acts as the antagonist to the quadriceps group during knee extension.

The answer that scoresMuscles are attached to bones by tendons. A tendon is a tough, inelastic band of fibrous tissue that transmits the force of a muscle contraction to the bone, which acts as a lever and moves the joint. Ligaments, by contrast, join bone to bone and stabilise the joint.

The answer that scoresFast twitch fibres create more force and contract more quickly, but they fatigue quickly and rely on anaerobic energy supply, so they suit short, high-intensity activities such as a sprint. Slow twitch fibres create less force but fatigue slowly and use aerobic energy supply, so they suit longer, lower-intensity activities such as cross-country running.

The answer that scoresVital capacity is the maximum volume of air that can be exhaled after a maximum inhalation. Tidal volume, by contrast, is the volume of air breathed in or out in one normal breath at rest.

The answer that scoresOn inspiration the diaphragm contracts and flattens, moving downwards, and the intercostal muscles contract to pull the ribs up and out. This increases the volume of the chest cavity, which lowers the pressure inside below the pressure outside, so air is drawn into the lungs. On expiration the diaphragm relaxes and rises back into its dome shape while the intercostal muscles relax, decreasing the volume and forcing air out.

The answer that scoresMinute ventilation = tidal volume × breathing rate. For example, a tidal volume of 0.5 litres at a breathing rate of 12 breaths per minute gives a minute ventilation of 6 litres per minute. During exercise both figures rise, so minute ventilation increases sharply.

The answer that scoresThe walls of the alveoli are only one cell thick, giving a very short diffusion distance, so oxygen and carbon dioxide can diffuse across quickly. Combined with the large surface area provided by the huge number of alveoli and the dense capillary network that maintains the concentration gradient, this makes gaseous exchange efficient.

The answer that scoresDuring exercise, tidal volume increases (breathing becomes deeper) and breathing rate increases, so minute ventilation - tidal volume × breathing rate - increases significantly. Vital capacity and residual volume are effectively unchanged by exercise; whatever increase in vital capacity occurs comes from long-term training, not from a single session.

The answer that scoresPlatelets help the blood to clot: they clump together at the site of a wound to plug the damage and stop bleeding. Oxygen is carried by the red blood cells, whose haemoglobin binds with oxygen in the lungs and releases it at the working muscles.

The answer that scoresThe pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs, where gaseous exchange takes place. The aorta then carries the newly oxygenated blood from the left ventricle out to the whole body.

The answer that scoresCardiac output = stroke volume × heart rate. For example, a stroke volume of 70 ml and a heart rate of 70 beats per minute gives a cardiac output of 4900 ml, or about 4.9 litres per minute. Cardiac output is measured in millilitres or litres per minute.

The answer that scoresVeins contain valves, which prevent blood flowing backwards away from the heart. Blood in the veins is at low pressure, so it is also helped along by the squeezing action of the surrounding skeletal muscles and by chest movement during breathing. Arteries instead have thick, muscular, elastic walls that stretch as blood surges through and help maintain pressure.

The answer that scoresDuring exercise the heart rate increases so that cardiac output rises and more oxygenated blood reaches the working muscles. With regular training, the heart muscle grows stronger and stroke volume increases, so the performer's resting heart rate falls - the heart moves more blood with each beat and needs fewer beats to do the same work.

The answer that scoresAnaerobic respiration: glucose → lactic acid.

The answer that scoresLactic acid is removed using oxygen. After exercise the breathing rate stays high (EPOC / oxygen debt) so that extra oxygen can be taken in and the lactic acid removed.

The answer that scoresLong term, the heart muscle hypertrophies so the heart is bigger and stronger, resting pulse rate falls (bradycardia) and stroke volume increases.

The answer that scoresLonger, low-intensity activities require aerobic respiration because oxygen can be delivered to the muscles fast enough. Shorter, intense activities require anaerobic respiration, which releases energy quickly but produces lactic acid.

The answer that scoresFirst class: fulcrum in the middle, e.g. the head nodding at the neck. Second class: resistance in the middle, e.g. standing on tiptoe. Third class: effort in the middle, e.g. a biceps curl.

The answer that scoresforce = mass × acceleration, so a performer with a greater mass needs a greater force to reach the same acceleration.

The answer that scoresIn flight the shot is affected by gravity acting downwards, which curves its path back to the ground, and by air resistance acting against its direction of travel, which slows it down. The force applied at release determined its speed and direction but no longer acts on it.

The answer that scoresGravity acts downwards on the sprinter. The force that accelerates them out of the blocks is the ground reaction force, the equal and opposite push from the blocks and the track when the sprinter drives back against them.

The answer that scoresHealth is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.

The answer that scoresSocial health and well-being means essential human needs are met, having friendship and support, having value within society, and being able to mix with other people.

The answer that scoresMental health and well-being means being able to cope with stress, being able to control emotions, and feeling good / having self-esteem.

The answer that scoresExercise improves physical health because it keeps all body systems working well and makes everyday tasks easier, mental health because it helps the performer cope with stress and build self-esteem, and social health because clubs and teams provide friendship, support and a sense of value.

The answer that scoresFitness is the ability to cope with (or meet) the demands of the environment.

The answer that scoresIll health decreases fitness when it leads to an inability to train, because the body is no longer being overloaded. However, a performer who is unhealthy but able to train can still increase their fitness.

The answer that scoresA performer needs to maintain a level of fitness by continuing to train, because fitness declines when training stops. Maintaining fitness in turn helps to maintain health.

The answer that scoresIll health can lead to an inability to train, so the performer stops overloading the body and fitness is lowered.

The answer that scoresCarbohydrate is the body's main and quickest source of energy: it is digested into glucose, which muscle cells use to release energy. Protein is used for growth and repair of tissue such as muscle, and supplies energy only when carbohydrate and fat stores are low.

The answer that scoresUnused energy is stored as fat. If energy intake regularly exceeds expenditure, body fat increases and this can lead to obesity.

The answer that scoresFemales generally have a smaller muscle mass and a higher proportion of body fat than males, so their energy needs are usually lower. An active female performer can still need more energy than a sedentary male, because training is the biggest factor in energy expenditure.

The answer that scoresSome glucose is converted to glycogen and stored in the muscles and in the liver, ready to be released for energy when demand rises.

The answer that scoresStrength is the maximum force a muscle can exert against a resistance; power is the ability to release that maximum force in the shortest possible time. A heavy weightlifter needs strength; a high jumper needs power.

The answer that scoresAgility is the ability to change the position of the body quickly and in a controlled way, changing direction at speed — for example a netball player dodging a defender. Dynamic balance is keeping the centre of mass over the base of support while moving.

The answer that scoresFlexibility is health-related: it is the range of movement possible at a joint and contributes to health and to coping with everyday activity. The skill-related components are agility, balance, coordination, power, reaction time and speed.

The answer that scoresCardiovascular endurance, or stamina, is the ability of the heart and lungs to supply oxygen to the working muscles over a long period of time, so a cross-country runner can hold pace for the whole race.

The answer that scoresCardiovascular endurance is measured by the Multi-Stage Fitness Test, where the performer runs 20-metre shuttles in time with progressively faster bleeps, or by the 12-Minute Cooper Run, where the performer covers as much distance as possible in 12 minutes.

The answer that scoresThe Illinois Agility Test uses a 10-metre by 5-metre course marked with 8 cones. The performer starts lying face down behind the start cone, gets up on the command and runs the set pattern around and between the cones as fast as possible. The result is the time taken in seconds, best of two attempts.

The answer that scoresThe Vertical Jump Test measures power — the ability to release maximum force in the shortest possible time. The performer marks their standing reach against a wall, then jumps as high as possible, and the difference between the two marks is recorded in centimetres.

The answer that scoresFitness tests identify a performer's strengths and weaknesses, so the coach can design a training programme that targets the weak component. Repeating the tests later monitors improvement, and comparing the scores with team-mates or national norms helps with selection.

The answer that scoresVO2 max is the maximum amount of oxygen the body can take in, transport and use per minute during maximum effort, measured in millilitres of oxygen per kilogram of body weight per minute.

The answer that scoresGenetics set the potential ceiling through inherited heart and lung size, muscle fibre type and haemoglobin level, but training raises VO2 max within that ceiling. A sedentary performer of the same age and gender will have a much lower value than a trained one.

The answer that scoresMales generally have a higher VO2 max because they typically have greater muscle mass, a larger heart and lungs and a higher haemoglobin level. Training reduces the difference, and a well-trained female performer can have a higher VO2 max than an untrained male.

The answer that scoresVO2 max peaks in the late teens and early twenties and then falls with age, because maximum heart rate and muscle mass decline, so the heart supplies less oxygen per minute. Training slows the decline but does not stop it.

The answer that scoresOverload means training at a level above what the performer is used to, so the body adapts and fitness improves. The extra work is followed by rest, which is when the adaptation happens. Training to exhaustion every session is overtraining and leads to injury and fatigue.

The answer that scoresReversibility means that if training stops, the adaptations are lost and fitness falls. A performer who cannot train for six weeks loses cardiovascular endurance and some muscular strength, and has to rebuild the training load gradually when they return.

The answer that scoresTedium is boredom caused by training that never changes. It matters because a bored performer loses motivation and reduces their training, so the training aim is no longer met. Varying the training method and the venue reduces tedium.

The answer that scoresF = frequency (how often the performer trains), I = intensity (how hard), T = time (how long), T = type (the method of training used).

The answer that scoresContinuous training is steady work at 60-80% of maximal heart rate for a long period without rest, so it improves cardiovascular endurance. Speed and power need short, explosive efforts, so they are trained with HIIT, plyometric or weight training instead.

The answer that scoresOne rep max (1 RM) is the heaviest weight the performer can lift once with correct technique. Training intensity is set as a percentage of that figure: a high percentage for a few repetitions develops strength, and a lower percentage for many repetitions develops muscular endurance.

The answer that scoresThe rest period allows waste products produced by the high-intensity work to be removed from the muscles, so the performer can work at a high intensity again in the next interval rather than fading.

The answer that scoresThere is less oxygen available at altitude, so the body responds by increasing its red blood cell count. More red blood cells means more oxygen can be carried to the working muscles, which improves endurance performance on return to sea level. The disadvantage is that the shortage of oxygen makes it much harder to complete training at normal intensity.

The answer that scoresPlyometrics must be preceded by strength training and by teaching the landing technique — land on the balls of the feet with bent knees — before the height or number of jumps is increased. Sessions are kept short, on a soft non-slip surface, and never on consecutive days, because the muscles need full recovery.

The answer that scoresA warm-up has three phases: a pulse raiser such as jogging to increase heart rate, breathing rate and muscle temperature; stretches of the muscle groups the activity uses; and familiarisation or skill-related activities such as passing and shooting practice at increasing intensity.

The answer that scoresA cool-down brings the pulse down gradually so blood keeps circulating and does not pool in the muscles, which prevents dizziness. It also helps remove waste products such as lactic acid, reducing stiffness and soreness, and stretching while the muscles are warm maintains flexibility and reduces the risk of injury in the next session.

The answer that scoresStretches should be held at the limit of the movement without bouncing, working through the full range of the joint. Holding the stretch lengthens the muscle safely and increases the range of movement.

The answer that scoresWarming up raises muscle temperature and increases the range of movement at the joints, which reduces the risk of injury: that is the physiological reason. It also raises motivation, reduces anxiety and helps the performer focus on the skills and tactics ahead: those are the psychological reasons.

The answer that scoresAbility is an inherited trait a performer is born with, such as natural hand-eye coordination or speed, and it sets the potential to learn a skill. Skill is a learned ability — developed through practice and coaching — and it is the ability to bring about a predetermined result consistently and efficiently.

The answer that scoresAbility gives the performer a starting point, but a skill is only developed through practice and good coaching. Two performers with the same natural ability can reach very different levels depending on the quality of their coaching, their motivation, their anxiety in competition and whether they have facilities and a suitable environment to practise in.

The answer that scoresArousal is how alert, excited and ready the performer is, and performance is best at an optimum level — too low and the performer is flat, too high and they are tense and error-prone. Anxiety is nervousness or worry about performing, which tightens muscles and narrows attention so skills break down. A performer can be highly aroused and not anxious at all.

The answer that scoresMotivation determines the amount and quality of practice a performer does. A motivated performer practises more often, works through the slow stages of learning and accepts feedback, so their skill level rises. A performer with low motivation practises less, avoids difficult skills and stops improving.

The answer that scoresA skilled performance is fluent, because the parts of the skill run together without a pause — a tennis player's serve flows from the ball toss into contact and follow-through as one action. It is also consistent, because the same technique is produced on every attempt, so the serve looks the same at 0–0 and at match point.

The answer that scoresAesthetically pleasing movement matters most in activities where appearance is judged, such as artistic gymnastics, dance and figure skating, where correct body lines and control are part of the score. In rugby, the aim is to stop the ball carrier effectively, so the tackle is judged on accuracy and technique rather than elegance.

The answer that scoresConsistency means the same technique is repeated each time, not that the outcome always works. A basketball player taking ten free throws with the same release is being consistent even if one shot rims out.

The answer that scoresConsistency is about repeating the same technique, while accuracy is about the result that technique produces. A golfer has a consistent swing if the technique repeats, but only accurate putting if the ball actually goes in the hole.

The answer that scoresA skilled performance is goal-directed, meaning the movement is chosen to achieve an aim such as scoring or creating space, and coordinated, meaning the body parts work together in the correct sequence to produce it.

The answer that scoresA rugby tackle is an open skill because the environment changes: the ball carrier is moving and the tackler must adapt the angle, timing and technique to each carrier, so no two tackles are identical.

The answer that scoresA netball shot at goal is a gross skill because the movement is produced by large muscle groups — the legs drive the body upwards, the trunk stabilises and the arms extend — so it involves a large, whole-body movement rather than a small, precise one.

The answer that scoresThe tennis serve is a complex skill because it has several sub-routines — the grip, stance, ball toss, backswing, contact and follow-through — that must be sequenced with precise timing, so the performer has no attention left for anything else.

The answer that scoresA gymnastics floor routine is a closed skill because the environment is stable and predictable: the routine is set, the performer controls the timing, and the same sequence of movements is performed every time.

The answer that scoresA continuum is a sliding scale. A badminton net shot sits towards the complex end of the basic/complex continuum because it needs precise touch and timing, but it is not as complex as a trampolining double somersault, which has more sub-routines.

The answer that scoresThe model is input, where the senses take in information from the display; decision-making, where the brain interprets that information, compares it with memory and selects a response; output, where the decision is carried out as a movement; and feedback, which returns information about the performance and loops back into input.

The answer that scoresShort-term memory holds the information being used right now, such as the position of the ball and the defender, for a short time and with a small capacity. Long-term memory holds learned skills, tactics and past experiences permanently and with effectively unlimited capacity, and they are retrieved into short-term memory to help the decision.

The answer that scoresFeedback is the information that returns to the performer after the movement. Some of it is intrinsic, such as feeling the balance of a landing or seeing where the ball went; some of it is extrinsic, such as a coach's comment or a scoreboard. Either way it loops back into input so the performer can adjust the next attempt.

The answer that scoresLimited channel capacity means the performer can only process a small amount of information at one time, and the single-channel hypothesis says only one stream can be dealt with at once. If two signals arrive together, one queues, so information is missed or acted on too late.

The answer that scoresA beginner makes mistakes because the technique still requires conscious thought, which uses up most of their limited channel capacity. With no attention spare to take in the input, the decision-making stage works on poor information, so the output is wrong. Once the skill becomes automatic it uses far less capacity and the performer can read the game.

The answer that scoresIn the cognitive stage the performer has to think about every part of the skill, so the movement is jerky and uncoordinated and full of errors. They are also inconsistent and cannot tell what went wrong, so they rely on the coach's extrinsic feedback and demonstrations to correct them.

The answer that scoresIn the associative stage the performer has the basic skill and is refining it: errors are fewer and smaller, the movement is smoother and more consistent, and they can begin to detect some of their own mistakes from the feel of the movement. The skill is not yet automatic, so the performer still has to think about it while performing.

The answer that scoresIn the autonomous stage the skill is automatic, fluent and consistent, and it holds up under pressure. Improvement does not stop, but it becomes very small and gradual, because there are fewer errors left to correct — which is why performers often describe a plateau at this stage.

The answer that scoresA cognitive performer should be given simple demonstrations, clear instructions and feedback on the basic technique, with the skill broken into parts, because they cannot yet tell right from wrong and the technique uses all of their attention.

The answer that scoresPerformers progress at different rates depending on the skill and the amount of practice, and a performer can move back a stage — for example after injury or a long lay-off, a previously autonomous skill may need conscious thought again.

The answer that scoresFeedback is information a performer receives about their performance. It can be intrinsic, felt from inside the performer through the proprioceptors, or extrinsic, coming from a coach, video or timing device. It can also be knowledge of performance, about the technique, or knowledge of results, about the outcome.

The answer that scoresCognitive performers make more use of extrinsic feedback and knowledge of results, because as beginners they cannot yet feel whether the movement was correct and need a coach to tell them or a clear result to read.

The answer that scoresKnowledge of results is feedback about the outcome — whether the shot went in or the distance measured — while knowledge of performance is feedback about the technique, such as a coach pointing out a dropped elbow.

The answer that scoresFeedback is important at every stage. It motivates the performer by showing progress and it corrects the movement so faults are not rehearsed. As the performer becomes autonomous the source shifts from extrinsic to intrinsic feedback, but feedback is still being received and used.

The answer that scoresManual guidance is when the coach physically moves or supports the performer through the correct movement, such as supporting a gymnast's hips during a handstand so the performer feels the correct position.

The answer that scoresVerbal guidance is not the most appropriate for beginners, because too much information overloads a cognitive performer. Beginners are better served by visual and manual/mechanical guidance, which give them an image to copy and the feel of the correct movement.

The answer that scoresManual guidance is useful early on because the performer feels the correct movement directly and is safer on difficult skills, but it must be withdrawn as the performer improves, because relying on the coach stops them developing their own feel for the skill.

The answer that scoresGuidance is given to help a performer learn a skill, usually before or during the attempt, while feedback is information about the performance after it has happened. Guidance shapes the movement; feedback corrects it.

The answer that scoresA SMARTER target would be: to complete 8 out of 10 passes successfully in small-sided games using the correct weight of pass, agreed with the coach, over the next six weeks, recording the pass success rate after every session.

The answer that scoresRealistic means the goal is achievable for that performer at that stage while still stretching them. A target that is too easy does not motivate the performer, and one that is impossible increases anxiety because the performer knows it cannot be met.

The answer that scoresGoal setting controls anxiety because the target replaces the worry about losing with a specific task the performer can control, such as hitting a particular split time. Because the target is realistic and the recorded progress shows it is within reach, the performer's confidence rises and the pressure of the event feels smaller.

The answer that scoresRealistic is the fifth principle and means the target is achievable for that performer at that stage. Recorded is the seventh and final principle and means the goal, and the progress towards it, are written down and checked.

The answer that scoresIntrinsic motivation comes from within the performer and is driven by the satisfaction and enjoyment of the activity itself, such as a swimmer training because they enjoy the feeling of improving their own stroke.

The answer that scoresExtrinsic motivation is powerful in the short term and is useful for starting participation and rewarding effort, but it is short-lived. Intrinsic motivation lasts longer because it does not depend on a reward being present, so it keeps performers involved when they are training without competitions.

The answer that scoresAbility is a performer's natural or developed capacity to perform a skill, while motivation is the drive that makes them take part and keep working at it. A performer can have high ability but drop out through lack of motivation, or limited ability and still train consistently through high motivation.

The answer that scoresPerformers are usually motivated by both types at once. A netball player may be extrinsically motivated to gain selection for the first team, and intrinsically motivated by the satisfaction of mastering the shooting technique. A coach can use the external reward to start participation and build the internal reasons behind it.

The answer that scoresPerformance improves as arousal rises up to an optimal level, then declines as arousal continues to rise. The optimal level is lower for fine skills such as a golf putt, because precision is needed, and higher for gross skills such as a rugby tackle, because power is needed.

The answer that scoresCognitive anxiety is the mental side: worry, negative thoughts and fear of failure that reduce concentration. Somatic anxiety is the physical side: a raised heart rate, sweating, shaking and tense muscles, caused by the body's response to the worry.

The answer that scoresTechniques should be combined. Deep breathing slows the breathing rate and lowers the heart rate, easing somatic anxiety, while visualisation and mental rehearsal reduce cognitive anxiety by building confidence and increasing concentration on the task.

The answer that scoresUnderarousal is below the optimal level: the performer is flat and inattentive, so reactions are slow and errors are made through carelessness. For a fine skill the performer still needs to reach the optimal level — just a lower one than a gross skill.

The answer that scoresAn introvert is a personality type that is inward-looking and reserved, preferring their own company or a small group. They usually choose individual activities such as golf or cross-country running, where they can perform alone and concentrate without a crowd.

The answer that scoresExtroverts usually play team games such as rugby or netball because they are outgoing and sociable, and these activities provide constant contact, communication and excitement with other players.

The answer that scoresExtroverts are usually drawn towards team games because they seek stimulation and enjoy company, but this is a tendency rather than a rule — an introvert may still excel in a team game if they have the ability.

The answer that scoresIntroverts are typically quiet, reflective and happier in calm, less stimulating environments, which is why individual activities suit them. Personality type does not determine whether a performer becomes anxious.

The answer that scoresPlay is spontaneous and unstructured with no fixed rules or formal competition, usually done for fun by children. Sport is organised, has set rules, involves competition and is usually governed by a national or international body.

The answer that scoresAge influences choice because physical capability and preferences change. A young child tends towards play and simple games, whereas an older adult often chooses lower-impact activities such as golf, cycling or hill walking that they can sustain and enjoy.

The answer that scoresSocial circumstances include income and available free time. A person with a low income and long working hours chooses cheap, flexible activities such as cycling or running and cannot afford activities needing club fees and expensive equipment, such as golf.

The answer that scoresFacilities available means the local venues, clubs and services a person can reach and afford. If there is no swimming pool nearby, a performer cannot take up competitive swimming or water polo, whereas a new sports centre makes basketball, badminton and weight training for fitness easy to access.

The answer that scoresLeisure time is the free time a person has away from work, school and other obligations. Recreation is what they choose to do with that time for enjoyment and refreshment — physical recreation being the physical form of it.

The answer that scoresBetter health awareness has grown through education, campaigns and medical advice about the risks of inactivity, so a larger number of people now take part in leisure activities deliberately in order to improve their physical and mental health.

The answer that scoresMass production and cheaper imports have reduced the cost of equipment, so activities such as cycling, badminton and weight training for fitness are now affordable for people on lower incomes, which increases the number of participants.

The answer that scoresCouncils and private companies have built more sports centres, pools, gyms and courts, often open long hours and close to where people live. Easy local access lowers cost and effort, so more people take part, including beginners who would not join a club.

The answer that scoresImprovements in healthcare mean injuries and illness no longer stop people taking part, and rehabilitation is quicker, so performers stay active for longer. Better health awareness is different: education and campaigns tell people why activity is good for them, which motivates them to take it up.

The answer that scoresTelevision, internet and social media, print and radio now cover a much wider range of activities. People see what is available and where to do it, and they copy visible role models, which inspires them to take up the activity. Coverage also attracts sponsorship that funds facilities and grassroots programmes.

The answer that scoresThe pyramid has foundation at the lowest and widest level, then participation, then performance, with elite as the highest and narrowest level.

The answer that scoresParticipation level is where a performer takes part regularly by choice for enjoyment, fitness and social reasons, such as a weekly club session, while playing for your country is the elite level.

The answer that scoresThe narrow top shows that only a very small number of performers reach elite level, so most participants remain at foundation or participation level for life even though elite performers are drawn from the large pool beneath them.

The answer that scoresPerformers usually move up as their skill and commitment grow, but they can also move down — for example a performance-level athlete who stops training after an injury becomes a participation-level player.

The answer that scoresSponsorship is a two-way arrangement in which a sponsor provides money or goods to a performer, team, sport or event, and in return receives advertising and association with that performer or event.

The answer that scoresThere are three types of sponsorship: financial support, provision of clothing / footwear / equipment, and the provision of specialist facilities.

The answer that scoresAn advantage of sponsorship to the audience is that better facilities and equipment make the event more enjoyable to watch, and more prize money attracts stronger competition.

The answer that scoresA disadvantage for the performer is the pressure to produce results for the sponsor, and the risk of losing funding if results dip or if the sponsor withdraws.

The answer that scoresTelevision coverage reaches a very large audience, so a performer who is broadcast regularly gains a higher profile and is more likely to attract sponsorship, although the same exposure brings pressure and scrutiny.

The answer that scoresA disadvantage of media coverage to the audience is that advertising breaks interrupt the action, and access may require a paid subscription.

The answer that scoresSocial media is an advantage to the audience because highlights and updates can be watched at any time on a phone, and an advantage to the performer because they can speak directly to fans without a broadcaster.

The answer that scoresMedia coverage brings the sport large income and a higher profile, but it can also mean that scheduling and rules are changed to suit broadcasters, and that television favours only the most popular sports.

The answer that scoresOne advantage is improved tourism: the event attracts visitors who need hotels, food and transport, and the worldwide coverage encourages people to visit the country afterwards.

The answer that scoresHome advantage means the host nation's performers compete in their own country, in familiar venues and conditions and without the disruption of long-distance travel, supported by a home crowd that can lift their performance.

The answer that scoresLegacy means what remains after the event: venues that continue to be used by clubs and schools, improved transport, raised participation and the country's improved profile.

The answer that scoresHosting brings real disadvantages: the cost of venues and infrastructure is enormous and often comes from public money, communities can be displaced to make room for them, and purpose-built facilities may fall into disuse and continue to cost money to maintain.

The answer that scoresA professional is paid to take part in their sport and trains as their full-time job, so they usually reach a higher standard than an amateur, who fits training around work and is not paid to play.

The answer that scoresAn amateur is not paid to play, but they may still receive sponsorship, clothing, footwear or equipment, appearance money or prize money, which is why the difference between professional and amateur status is no longer clear.

The answer that scoresAmateurs and professionals compete at the Olympic Games; eligibility is decided sport by sport by the international federation, so an unpaid performer can compete against someone who earns a living from the sport.

The answer that scoresIncreased media coverage and commercialisation brought money into the sport, so sponsorship, appearance money and prize money now allow unpaid performers to earn from taking part, and Olympic eligibility rules admit professionals — the difference between the two statuses is no longer clear.

The answer that scoresVideo review helps officials in Association Football, because offside and penalty decisions can be checked against footage, so a wrong decision is less likely to decide the result.

The answer that scoresPhoto finish is used in Track and Field Athletics to separate athletes who finish level to the eye; in Association Football, goal-line technology is used to decide whether the ball crossed the line.

The answer that scoresFor spectators, technology is positive because replays and on-screen statistics make it clear what has happened and why a decision was made. It is negative because reviews stop the game for several minutes, which interrupts the excitement and can take the atmosphere out of the moment.

The answer that scoresIn cycling, technology enhances performance: aerodynamic frames, helmets and skin suits reduce drag so the performer goes faster for the same effort, and power meters measure the work produced so training can be set at the right intensity.

The answer that scoresOne factor is time and work commitments: a performer who works shifts cannot attend a session that only runs on weekday evenings, so they stop taking part even though they want to.

The answer that scoresAccess is the opportunity to take part: whether the performer can reach the facility, afford the cost and use it. If the pool has no ramp, a wheelchair user has no access regardless of how much they would enjoy swimming.

The answer that scoresBuilding a facility is provision, and it only increases participation when access is dealt with too — transport or a local site, reduced fees, and sessions at times people can attend. Promotion is also needed so people know the activity exists and feel it is for them.

The answer that scoresDisability restricts access when facilities, equipment and coaching are not adapted: if a pool has no hoist or the changing rooms are not accessible, the performer cannot take part even though the activity is available locally.

The answer that scoresBeta blockers reduce anxiety, so they would give an advantage in an activity needing fine control under pressure such as Golf, where a steadier hand and a slower heart rate make the putting stroke more consistent.

The answer that scoresOne reason is to keep up with the competition: a performer who believes their rivals are using prohibited drugs may take them to avoid being left behind, even though they know the health risks and the ban that follows a positive test.

The answer that scoresTesting can be in competition, where a performer is tested after an event or selected at random, or out of competition, where samples are taken without notice at a training venue or at home; in each case the sample may be urine or blood, and selection may be random or targeted at a particular performer.

The answer that scoresThe performer faces health damage, financial penalties, public humiliation and a ban, but clean competitors also lose races, medals and prize money to someone who cheated. A scandal damages the sport's reputation, costs it sponsorship and media income, and presents drug use to young performers as a route to success.

The answer that scoresDiuretics cause weight loss by making the body pass more urine, so they would give an advantage in an activity with weight categories such as Judo, where the performer must reach a set weight before competing.

The answer that scoresBlood doping raises the number of red blood cells, so more haemoglobin is available to carry oxygen to the working muscles. More oxygen means the performer can respire aerobically for longer at a higher intensity, so fatigue is delayed — a clear advantage in endurance events such as long-distance swimming.

The answer that scoresBlood is withdrawn about one to two units several weeks before competition and stored. The body replaces the lost red blood cells during that time, so the count returns to normal. Shortly before competing, the stored blood is reinfused, raising the count well above normal for the event.

The answer that scoresEven with the performer's own blood, the extra red blood cells make the blood more viscous, so the heart works harder and there is a greater risk of a clot causing a heart attack or a stroke. There is also a risk of infection or an allergic reaction if the blood is stored or transfused incorrectly.

The answer that scoresThe benefit is greatest in endurance events such as cross-country running or 1500 m swimming, where aerobic respiration supplies most of the energy. A sprinter racing for around ten seconds gains almost nothing.

The answer that scoresGamesmanship is using methods that are allowed by the rules but against the spirit of the game in order to gain an unfair advantage, for example repeatedly delaying a serve so the opponent loses rhythm. Cheating, by contrast, breaks a rule and can be punished by the official.

The answer that scoresA better gamesmanship example is a player standing over the ball to stop a free kick being taken quickly, which is legal but delays play and unsettles the opposition. Diving to win a penalty would be cheating, because it breaks a rule.

The answer that scoresSportsmanship is fair play: playing within the rules and the spirit of the game, respecting opponents and officials, accepting decisions and being gracious whether you win or lose — for example shaking hands with the opposition and applauding their performance.

The answer that scoresGamesmanship damages any contest because it works against the spirit of fair play. If performers gain advantages unfairly, opponents become frustrated, spectators lose trust in the result and the sport loses respect and income from sponsors.

The answer that scoresReal risk is a danger that genuinely exists whether or not the performer is aware of it, such as a wet poolside where a swimmer could fall. Perceived risk is the danger the performer believes exists, which may be greater or smaller than the real risk — for example a beginner believing they will drown in the shallow end.

The answer that scoresA gum shield is protective equipment that covers the teeth and jaw. It absorbs and spreads the force of an impact to the face during a tackle, so it reduces the risk of broken teeth and a fractured jaw as well as reducing the severity of the injury if one happens.

The answer that scoresA warm up raises muscle temperature and makes muscles, tendons and ligaments more elastic, so they are less likely to strain or tear, and a cool down returns the heart rate gradually to normal and reduces stiffness. Alongside those, a performer should wear protective equipment such as shin pads or a mouthguard, wear footwear suited to the surface, lift heavy equipment with a straight back and bent knees, keep hydrated, follow the rules, and compete at a suitable level.

The answer that scoresDehydration reduces concentration and reaction time and causes cramp and muscle fatigue, so a performer is much more likely to mistime a movement or collide with another performer. Drinking before, during and after activity lowers that risk as well as protecting performance.

The answer that scoresWinding is caused by a blow to the abdomen, which makes the diaphragm go into spasm so the performer cannot take a breath. The simple treatment is to stop the activity, stay calm, bend slightly forward and breathe slowly and deeply until the breathing returns to normal, and only then return to the activity.

The answer that scoresA blister should not be burst. It is caused by friction between the skin and the footwear, so it is covered with a soft dressing or blister plaster to reduce the friction, and the cause is removed by wearing correct-fitting, broken-in footwear and dry socks. If it bursts on its own, it is cleaned and covered with a sterile dressing.

The answer that scoresA ligament joins bone to bone and holds a joint together. A ligament injury is caused when the joint is forced beyond its normal range — a twist, an awkward landing or a sudden change of direction — so the ligament stretches or tears, and the joint becomes swollen, painful and unstable.

The answer that scoresRest stops the injured area being used so no further damage is done. Ice narrows the blood vessels, reducing bleeding and swelling and numbing the pain. Compression limits how much fluid collects and supports the joint. Elevation raises the limb above the heart so fluid drains away and the swelling reduces more quickly.

The answer that scoresA tendon injury is usually caused by overuse: repeated stress on the tendon, a sudden increase in training volume or poor technique. The tendon becomes inflamed and painful, and the pain gets worse with repeated use rather than easing as the performer warms up.